Mountain Madness: Guided mountaineering in New Zealand's Southern Alps
Anna Carr
First published February 2002
Department of Tourism, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
Email acarr@business.otago.ac.nz
- Abstract
- Introduction
- Guided Alpine Activities
- The popularity of climbing in the 1990s
- Motivations for climbing
- The pursuit of risk or insight?
- The expectations of guided climbers
- Conclusion
- References
Abstract
Mountaineering is pursued by many visitors to New Zealand's Southern Alps many of whom hire mountain guides. The New Zealand Mountain Guides Association (NZMGA) was formed in 1974 and has a training and certification programme, audit and safety standards that have been internationally recognised since 1981 when the Association was accepted into the International Union of Mountain Guides (UIAGM). Over the 1997/98 summer climbing season the writer intends to research the expectations and experiences of guided clients. This area has been relatively under-researched however studies have concentrated on non-guided climbers and other mountain recreationists. This paper explores the history and current situation of guided climbing in the Southern Alps, and examines relevant research on climbers.
Keywords: climbing, adventure, risk, competence, 'flow', motivation.
Introduction
Adventure tourism - a risky past-time?
The past two decades have seen a considerable rise in the commodification of of adventurous leisure activities and correspondingly adventure tourism operators have had to be more accountable for their clients safety (American Demographics 1997; Greenaway 1996). Technological developments with equipment and transportation, the glamorization or dramatisation of adventure through the media and increased social acceptance of these activities have created a market of adventure seekers who sample various 'products' whilst holidaying in their home country or overseas.
Meier (1980) regarded risky recreational activities, such as climbing, as offering opportunities to experience challenge, exploration, camaraderie, escape from daily troubles and communication with the natural world. Ewert observed that "What distinguishes adventure activities from those more commonly associated with outside recreation is a deliberate seeking of risk and uncertainty of outcome - only in outdoor adventure pursuits is there a deliberate inclusion of activities that may contain threats to an individual's health or life" (Ewert 1989:13).
It is through pursuing adventure that many people can potentially fulfill the highest need of Maslow's heirarchy, self-actualization and by undertaking an adventure pursuit the lower level needs, such as physiological safety, are sacrificed in the pursuit of a variety of extrinsic or intrinsic benefits.
Throughout the past two decades New Zealand has developed a reputation as an adventure tourism destination. Relatively new commercial activities such as sea kayaking, river surfing, bungy jumping, and heli-biking are offered alongside more traditional pursuits such as horse riding, jet boating and mountaineering. Access to the outdoors is part of many a New Zealander's heritage and the adventurous 'kiwi spirit' has rubbed off on many an international tourist, some falling victim to unsafe operations, uncontrollable circumstances or their own lack of experience. The Adventure Tourism Council is promoting industry-recognized qualifications and stricter guidelines for adventure tourism operators to encourage safety standards (Tourism Policy Group 1996). The industry is generally moving towards a more professional attitude but as asked in a 1996 article "can you eliminate risk without destroying the adventure?" (Greenaway 1996: 46).
Guided Alpine Activities
Professional guiding has been established for tourists in New Zealand since the first Hermitage Hotel was built at Mount Cook. The earliest record of a professional mountaineer working in New Zealand was the Swiss guide Ulrich Kaufman, who accompanying Emil Boss and the Reverend William Spotswood Green narrowly missed being the first to ascend Aoraki/Mount Cook in the 1880's. John Adamson, manager at the Hermitage in the early 1890s was to become the first New Zealand guide, taking people on one day or overnight expeditions and glacier walks in the Mount Cook area.
Mountaineering received much public attention when on Christmas Day 1894 three amateur New Zealand climbers, Jack Clarke, George Graham and Tom Fyfe, stood on Aoraki/Mt Cook's summit. That same season Clarke and Fyfe continued to make ascents in New Zealand's mountains and Clarke learnt mountaineering techniques from Swiss guide Mattias Zurbriggen, who with his client E.A. Fitzgerald, narrowly missed claiming the first ascent of the mountain. Jack Clarke were to choose mountain guiding as a profession, climbing in the European Alps and becoming the first Chief Guide at the Hermitage when the Government Tourist Department realized that the provision of guiding services in the Mt Cook area was essential to meet customer satisfaction and entice visitors to the area. A succession of respected mountaineers such as Peter Graham, Vic Williams and Mick Bowie were to hold the position of Chief guide at the Hermitage until the 1940s.
From the early 1900s to 1920s visitors traveled to Mt Cook, Fox Glacier and Franz Josef from within New Zealand and overseas purely to indulge in mountaineering under the watchful eye of their guides. Freda du Faur, was typical of the returning client and over a number of seasons, with guides Darby Thompson, Peter and Alex Graham, claimed many ascents including the first traverses of Mt Sefton and Mt Cook.
The years surrounding the First and Second World Wars negatively affected the development of guided mountaineering with many guides serving in the armed forces and guideless climbs commencing. However more women pursued mountaineering and the first female guides, Betsy Blunden and Junee Ashurst (nee Gray or Mulvay), were based at the Hermitage during the late 1920s to 1940s.
The need for professionalism based on skills, experience and technical training resulted in the Government passing legislation to license mountain guides with the Mountain Guides Act 1931. The Act was never implemented by the then Department of Tourist and Health Resorts and was eventually repealed in 1963 (Adcock 1969).
From the 1940s the rise of the New Zealand Alpine Club, Canterbury Mountaineering Club and various tramping and mountaineering clubs throughout the country resulted in amateurs dominating the climbing scene. Club instruction courses enabled independent development of climbers and amateurs ventured into the mountains without the services of a guide, though often still seeking their advice (Langton 1996). High guiding declined with the rise of amateur climbers, with most guiding occurring on easier graded peaks, passes or glaciers.
In 1966 Alpine Instruction Ltd. was established by a group of mountaineers at the old Ball Hut above the Tasman Glacier where they offered tuition in mountaineering. Though short lived they were the first professional guiding company and in 1974 the New Zealand Mountain Guides' Association (NZMGA) was formed to establish safety standards and a means of certifying guides. The NZMGA has a training and certification programme, audit and safety standards that are nationally and internationally recognized by the International Union of Mountain Guides (UIAGM), which the NZMGA has been a member of since 1981.
Currently thirty guides are fully qualified to UIAGM standards and another 40 are qualified NZMGA ski or climbing guides (NZMGA Directory 1997). Training through a variety of courses is intensive, entry standards are high and professionalism is paramount. This year NZMGA guides are involved with assessing American guides in the USA, a country that only recently joined the UIAGM. Issues faced by the NZMGA include competition from overseas companies, concession procedures, maintaining and developing new markets, ensuring product quality and avoiding conflict with other user groups. The NZMGA has, in many respects, led the way for other sectors of New Zealand's adventure tourism industry to adopt a professional approach that will lead to recognition and confirmation of high standards overseas.
Alpine Guides Mount Cook and Alpine Guides Westland are two of the longest running companies and there are now twelve South Island based companies that employ NZMGA guides, the most internationally renowned being Adventure Consultants Ltd.
The popularity of climbing in the 1990s
By seeking the alpine based activities offered by various companies and independent guides it can be assumed that clients wish to experience New Zealand's natural wilderness in as safe a manner as possible.
The rapid development of indoor climbing walls in the past decade has seen the advent of sport climbing which has encouraged more people to test their skills in the outdoors, their over-confidence in their technical skills but lack of actual mountaineering experience sometimes leading to tragedy. In a controlled environment technique and physical fitness can be developed but in one experienced climber's opinion indoor climbing walls and competitions have "as much to do with the great outdoors as a canasta tournament" (Long 1992: 2). The availability of indoor climbing walls, climbing guide books, outdoor education programmes and improved equipment are reducing the uncertainty of outcome which is a major component of adventure (Heywood 1994). By hiring a guide it could be argued that the need for personal inner skills such as decision making and judgment are no longer required when climbing, thus further reducing the quality of adventure experience. However many climbers making the transition from rock walls to the outdoors, or who merely want to develop their skills, recommend the positive learning and climbing experiences made possible by hiring a guide (Stevens 1997).
Motivations for climbing
Climbers experiences have been well documented in literature and promoted through the mass media further popularizing the sport (Mitchell 1983). An array of motivations typifying wilderness users and adventure seekers, for example closeness to nature, physical exercise, natural scenery, the desire for solitude, social contact, risk seeking, challenge, fun and the 'quest for uncertainty', are shared by mountaineers (Catton 1969: Ewert 1983: Johnston 1987/1989).
Most notably mountaineering is acknowledged as an activity where, if all goes well, "peak experience (intense joy), peak performance (superior functioning and 'flow' (intrinsically rewarding experience)" can be attained (Privette 1983:1361). Research by Csikszentmihalyi which involved in-depth studies of rock climbers concluded that rewarding experiences resulted when challenge matches skill levels resulting in "flow - an intrinsically enjoyable experience", the participant's competence or mastery of the situation thus enhancing the experience.
Happiness, merging of action and awareness, self actualisation and total absorption in the task at hand were some of the characteristics of deep flow experiences identified by Csikszentmihalyi. 'Flow' offers one explanation why climbers pursue what is apparently a dangerous sport with no external material ewards and potential negative outcomes. Such an intrinsic reward compensates for any dangers, perceived or real.
Mitchell (1983) agreed that adventure experiences are pursued for intrinsic rewards like 'flow' yet freedom of choice and an uncertain outcome were identified as other factors that contributed to such experiences. Mitchell researched the experiences of climbers through literature, behavioral observations and surveys. He identified various motivations and a wide diversity of experiences amongst mountaineers whose careers were predominantly in the professional and technical fields - such people sought risk and challenge in mountaineering because they no longer experienced 'flow' due to lack of sufficient challenge, in the work place.
Figure 1. Model of the "Flow" State
Source: Csikszentmihalyi 1976
In the 1983 North American climbing season Ewert surveyed 480 climbers at Mt Rainier National Park, Washington, to assess how motivations differed amongst climbers with increasing experience. Results indicated a variety of motivations, which belonged within six main groups identified as challenge, catharsis, recognition, creative opportunities, locus of control and for the physical setting.
Table One: Motivations In Mountain Climbing
| Challenge/Risk | Catharsis | Recognition |
|---|---|---|
| Exhilaration | Solitude | Recognition |
| Accomplishment | Relaxation | Competition |
| Excitement | Disengagement | To Show Others |
| Because of Risks | Slow Mind | To Be A 'Mountaineer |
| Physical Skills | Personal Values | |
| Personal testing | Escape Authority | |
| Creativity | Locus of Control | Physical Setting |
| To help Others | Develop Abilities | Enjoy Wilderness |
| Creativity | Make Decisions | View Scenery |
| Self-expression | Gain Control | Be Close To Nature |
| Photography | Team Effort | |
| Use Mind | Friendships | |
| To Think |
Source: Ewert 1985: 241
Ewert identified that motivations changed as experience levels increased. Climbing was initially pursued for extrinsic reasons such as recognition, escape and socialization but in the long term more intrinsic reasons were apparent such as exhilaration, self-awareness, decision making, challenge and the testing of personal skills. The feeling of 'flow' enabling an ultimate 'peak' experience was an intrinsic motivation that experienced climbers desired and purposefully sought. An appropriate level of risk or challenge suited to each climber's level of experience was necessary for satisfaction to occur.
This intertwining of risk and competence complements Csikszentmiyalhi's theory and was developed into a model by Martin and Priest (1986). The "Adventure Experience Paradigm" (Figure Two) depicts a range of adventure experiences ranging from negative to positive experiences depending on the "interaction of situational risk and personal competence" (Priest 1992:127). It is paradoxical that one motivation for many mountaineers when pursuing their sport is to escape stresses of their everyday environment, only to encounter challenges with potentially negative outcomes in the outdoors (Mitchell 1983; Martin and Priest 1986). But if the participant can correctly perceive the risk involved and match it to their own levels of competency then a 'peak adventure', i.e. 'flow', may result. However if they over-rate their personal competence 'misadventure' or 'devastation and disaster' may result.
Figure Two: The Adventure Experience Paradigm
Source: Martin and Priest (1986)
One effective way of avoiding negative consequences is to hire a professional guide who can assist with safe climbing techniques and make decisions. The professional assistance may enable them to experience adventure or peak adventure, avoid fear, disaster or misadventure and provide them, with the opportunity to explore areas they would usually avoid because they lack the skills, time or judgment.
In New Zealand Johnston (1989) and Aukerman and Davison (1980) are the only researchers to date who have focused on mountain climbers personal experiences or expectations, neither study differentiating guided clients from general climbers. Aukerman and Davison recognised that mountain recreation such as climbing satisfied the human needs of Maslow's higher levels - esteem and self-actualization. Mountaineering was also pursued for reasons of friendship, appreciation of mountain scenery, personal growth and challenge.
Johnston (1989) researched the role risk plays in affecting people's experiences and devised a Risk Perception Continuum ranging from positive risk experiences (challenge which can result in 'flow') to negative risk experiences (danger). The research involved 915 participants from five activity groups comprising of trampers, skiers, hunters, walkers and 49 climbers (5.4% of the group). Self-assessed experience levels were utilised with climbers assessing themselves as more experienced with situations involving 'risk', however they did not prefer negative risk situations. Sources of enjoyment which included an element of risk such as self-challenge, physical challenge, achievement, exhilaration, danger, peak experience were identifed as strong motivational factors. Johnston concluded that an acceptable risk level contributed to the experience of 'flow'. However risk detracted from the experience of the climbers as their skill levels could not meet the challenge and they were then exposed to danger. Minimal risk, where individual's skills and experience exceeded the challenge meant the individual may become bored thus affirming the theories of 'flow' and adventure experience.
The pursuit of risk or insight?
Walle (1997) suggests that outdoor activities such as mountaineering should not be viewed solely as opportunities for participants 'to confront nature to experience risk', but also as an opportunity to gain 'insight'. The association of adventure with risk is regarded by Walle as narrow and limited. A more general approach proposed by Walle, that people pursue adventure for 'personal insight or enlightenment' has been previously acknowledged (Ewert 1989). Walle advocates that the marketing of adventure tourism activities can be directed towards not just clients who seek risk, but also towards those who seek 'insight'. Walle suggests that the lucrative market of those wishing to gain 'insight' is under-served yet self awareness and challenge are recurring themes in mountaineering literature and is utilised in marketing of climbing activities.
In general researchers agree that adventure experiences which involve challenging, positive risk situations can lead to insight. Mountaineering literature, particularly biographical material, has many examples of risk being an accepted 'by-product' that is experienced, often unintentionally, by those seeking insight. Likewise those seeking a physical challenge may be surprised by the insight they gain when they observe 'flow', self awareness, competence or mastery occurring as a 'by-product' of their personal physical challenge. The 'uncertainty of outcome' which is part of the adventure experience means that no specific benefit, be it physical, emotional or mental, can be guaranteed.
The expectations of guided climbers
While a variety of international visitors and New Zealanders employ the services of NZMGA guides, the industry and the clients have never been the focus of academic research. Few companies analyse data collected about clients so successful service is usually measured by the number of new and returning clients each season. Over the main 1997/98 climbing season the writer will be combining qualitative and quantitative research methods in a study of the expectations and experiences of guided clients. By determining the driving forces behind their choice of activity it is foreseen that valuable information will be gained into the users of some of New Zealand's more pristine wilderness areas. Focus groups, in-depth interviews and a survey will ascertain personal expectations and whether the experiences fulfill intrinsic and extrinsic needs. Interviews will be structured using ASEB Grid Analysis devised by McIntosh and Prentice (1997) to gain an in-depth understanding of the activities, settings, experiences and benefits sought by guided clients.
As research on adventure experiences has found, the intrinsic benefits that can be achieved when climbing appears to result from personal competence and skills. That these benefits are sought by guided climbers has to be assumed - undoubtedly they relish the exhilaration of climbing a mountain as much as an unguided climber and hence are willing to pay for the experience. Theoretically individual's skills enable them to experience 'flow' or peak experience but what happens in the situation when the guide makes the decisions or performs the tasks when confronted with challenging situations.
Could it be that guides judge the right level of challenge for each client thus enabling them to experience 'flow' or a 'peak experience' without boredom or anxiety - the guide facilitating the experience for the climber? By hiring a guide clients may begin a steep learning curve of mountaineering skills which would not be possible through usual channels, but will enable them to later pursue their own adventures without a guide. Other people, without the necessary experience or skills to undertake a particular climb, are willing to pay a guide to reduce the risks associated with mountaineering and thus climb their personal 'Everest'.
For many guided clients the climbing holiday is a one-off experience, just another adventure tourism choice. Some guided climbers may be completely ignorant of the types of risk and danger involved until they arrive at their holiday destination. Because of variable factors such as weather, snow conditions, lack of physical or mental preparation, the challenge they are faced with may be greater then they ever conceived. Posssibly the potential benefits of climbing may be further reduced in a guided group situation where a variety of people with different skills and backgrounds are together. Feedback from client evaluation forms indicates that guides usually provide clients with mountaineering challenges that result in rewarding experiences which are less likely to occur if the clients 'went it alone'(Alpine Guides 1997).
Conclusion
When performing their job guides have an ethical duty to operate within limits of risk thus protecting the client(s) from potential harm, which increasingly could involve companies in legal proceedings. Many clients do return year after year to undertake guided activities indicating high satisfaction with their experiences. Opportunities abound for clients to pursue 'risk' or 'insight' as the range of guided activities, from walking on a glacier to climbing a major peak, have varying degrees of challenge, technical difficulty and danger. New Zealand's alpine regions are held in awe by many - they are one of our truly unique tourism products. There is great future potential for New Zealand mountain guiding companies to develop niche markets and maintain a strong competitive position internationally. By gaining an in-depth understanding of existing clients experiences other tourists, inclined to seek the same benefits that adventure activities in New Zealand's mountains can provide, may be persuaded to indulge in guided mountaineering.
References
Adcock, D.H. 1970 A Case For Guides Registration, DPA Unpublished Essay. Victoria University, Wellington, New Zealand.
Alpine Guides 1997 Course evaluation questionnaires 1996/97. Alpine Guides Mt Cook Ltd, New Zealand.
Aukerman, R. and J. Davison. 1980 The Mountain Land Recreationist in New Zealand. Lincoln Papers in Resource Management, No. 6. Tussock Grasslands and Mountain Lands Institute. Lincoln College, Canterbury.
Carpenter, G and S. Priest 1989 The adventure experience paradigm and non-outdoor leisure pursuits. Leisure Studies 8: 65-75
Catton W.R.J. 1969 Motivations of wilderness users. Woodlands Section, Pulp and Paper Magazine of Canada December 1969, 19:121-126.
Celsi, R. L ; Rose R.L. and T.W. Leigh 1993 An Exploration of High-Risk Leisure Consumption through Sky Diving Journal of Consumer Research June 1993, 20: 1 - 22.
Csikszentmiyalhi, M. 1975 Beyond Boredom and Anxiety San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Dennis, A. and Potton, C. The Alpine World of Mount Cook National Park Cobb-Horwood Publications, Auckland, New Zealand.
Emerson, R. 1968 Games: Rules, Outcomes and Motivations. Mimeographed paper presented to AAAS Symposium on psychology and Sociology of Sport, Dallas, Texas. December 1968. Cited in Catton (1969).
Ewert, A. 1985 Why people climb: The relationship of participant motives and experience level to mountaineering. Journal of Leisure Research 17(3):241-250.
Ewert, A. 1989 Outdoor Adventure Pursuits: foundations, models and theories Publishing Horizons Inc. Columbus.
Ewert A and S. Hollenhorst 1989 Testing the adventure model: empirical support for a model of risk recreation participation. Journal of Leisure Research 21(2):124-139.
Greenaway, R. 1996 Thrilling not killing: managing the risk tourism business. Management May 1996: 46-49.
Heath, R.P. 1997 You Can Buy A Thrill: chasing the ultimate rush American Demographics June 1997: 47-51.
Heywood, I. 1994 Urgent Dreams: climbing, rationalization and ambivalence Leisure Studies 13: 179-194.
Johnston, M.E. 1987 Risk in mountain recreation: Challenge or Danger? Proceedings of the Fourteenth New Zealand Geography Conference. January 1987. Massey University Printery, Palmerston North.
Johnston, M.E. 1989 Peak Experiences: Challenge and danger in mountain recreation in New Zealand, unpublished PhD thesis. Department of Geography, University of Canterbury, Christchurch.
Langton, G. 1996 A History of Mountain Climbing in New Zealand to 1953, unpublished PhD thesis, History Department, University of Canterbury, Christchurch.
Long, J. 1992 Face Climbing Chockstone Press, Colorado, USA
Manning, R.E. 1986 Studies in Outdoor Recreation: A review and synthesis of the social science literature in outdoor recreation. Corvalis, OR: Oregon State University Press, USA.
Martin, P. and S. Priest 1986 Understanding the Adventure Experience Adventure Education 3: 18-21
Maslow, A. 1968 Toward a Psychology of Being D. Van Nostrand Company Inc. Princeton, New Jersey, USA.
McIntosh, A.J. and R.C. Prentice 1997 Conceptualising the experiences of heritage tourists. Tourism Management 18(2):75-87.
Meier, J.F. 1980 Is the risk worth taking? In Leisure Today: Selected Readings. Volume Two. F.W. Martin (editor), USA.
Meier J.F. Morash, T.W. and G.E. Walton 1980 High Adventure Outdoor Pursuits: organisation and leadership. Publishing Horizons Incorporated. Ohio, USA.
New Zealand Mountain Guides Association Directory. November 1996, Mt Cook, New Zealand.
Priest, S. 1992 Factor Exploration and Confirmation for the Dimensions of an Adventure Experience Journal of Leisure Research 24 (2) : 127-139.
Smith, J. Davison, J and B. Geden 1980 The Public Mountain Land Resource for Recreation in New Zealand. Tussock Grasslands and Mountain Lands Institute. Lincoln College, Canterbury New Zealand.
Stevens, A. 1997 The learner's stand. The Climber, winter 1997, 21: 18. New Zealand Alpine Club. Wellington.
Tourism Policy Group 1996 Safety Management in the Adventure tourism Industry: Voluntary and Regulatory. Compiled by L. Dickinson. Wellington, New Zealand.
Walle, A.H. 1997 Pursuing risk or insight: marketing adventures. Annals of Tourism Research 24(2):265-282.